Report 4 – Portugal

Can the teaching of History prevent the rise of the far-right?

“Open letter asks for the prohibition of the far-right demonstration in Lisbon” 

(“Público”, 24-01-2024: 16)

“Germany makes a strong stand against AfD¹: 1.5 million participated in protests” 

(Público, 23-01-2024: 23)

“Nationalism threatens Europe once again” 

(Público, 26-11-2023: 9)

“Neonazi youth network created cells in several European countries, as well as in the USA, with the intent of performing armed attacks. Throughout a year, reporters from several newspapers investigated their activities” 

(Title of a dossier in. “Público”, 10-09-2023: 9-13)

“Robert Sesselmann² – the first far-right ruler” 

(“Expresso”, 30-06-2023: 28)

Introduction

There is an increase in number, as well as in severity, of disturbing news that have transformed what was a sporadic event into a social disease. Remembering the History of violent, inhumane and shameful wounds from different countries, regions, people, regimes, is no longer enough for us to infer that they shall never happen again. The quietness attained when the “common man” considers evil “banal” is over and requires us to be attentive regarding realities that should mobilise us and keep us alert.

We must be vigilant from a social standpoint, constantly and critically, with a mid to long term framework so that it doesn’t get drowned out, in the short term, by the constant pour of other news. The responsibility of mitigating this reality and enabling citizens to deal with these issues must begin in schools, within the politically defined compulsory school years.

We’ve looked into the Portuguese reality as it is the one we know best, and it may serve as an analytical framework for other countries to compare with. We went through the legal framework that determines the political decisions, particularly the PASEO (students profile at the end of compulsory education), the Lei de Bases do Sistema Educativo (Law no. 46/86) complemented by the Decreto-Lei no. 176/2012³, the program for the subject of History  as well as the changes introduced by the Metas Curriculares (Curricular Goals) and by the Aprendizagens Essenciais (Essential Learnings), analysed content of the most sold manuals of the 3rd cycle (7th, 8th and 9th grades) and High School, so that we can now summarise our research’s main conclusions. 

Compulsory time at School and the existence of a centralised curriculum

In 1986, the release of the Lei de Bases do Sistema Educativo (Law no. 46/86) establishes a landmark moment in the Portuguese educational system. Henceforth, compulsory education will be for 9 years (or until 15 years of age), later extended to 12 years (or 18 years of age) by the Decreto-Lei no.176/2012. Through this legislation, the educational system becomes centralised, including the curriculum for the compulsory education years. Recently, some leeway has been granted to schools, through the publishing of the Despacho no. 5907/2017, on the 5th of July. It gives them some curricular autonomy and flexibility allowing “schools the possibility of participating in the development of their curriculum, by defining priorities for the contextualised appropriation of the curriculum and taking on diversity by finding best suited options for the challenges of their educational project, is to support the educational policy by bringing together three fundamental elements: autonomy, trust and responsibility”⁴. The curriculum for each subject of the study plan established for Basic Education and High School will, however, still be defined centrally.

In the early nineties of the 20th Century⁵, there was a review of the syllabus for the different subjects, updating the content of the curriculum, followed later by the Metas de Aprendizagem, within the Estratégia Global de Desenvolvimento do Currículo nacional (Development of the National Curriculum Global Strategy), outlined by the Ministry of Education in December of 2009⁶, and later on by the Metas Curriculares⁷ (just for basic education). 

All Metas Curriculares⁸ programs where revoked in 2018, establishing, for all subjects, the Aprendizagens Essenciais⁹.

The Aprendizagens Essenciais articulates with the Students’ Profile at the end of Compulsory Education (PASEO), as an “organising document of reference for the entire educational system¹⁰” seeking to connect the development of scientific knowledge, to the development of values, principles and skills present in all subjects.

As it pertains to History, a compulsory subject, it becomes autonomous in the 5th and 6th grades (2nd cycle of Basic Education) associated with the  subject of Geography, teaching only about Portugal. In the 3rd cycle of basic Education it becomes entirely independent and continues to be compulsory, encompassing contents from Prehistory to the present, within 3 years of study. In High School, this subject is only compulsory for students who pursue their studies in the field of Languages and Humanities. For those who choose to study Socio-Economic Sciences or Visual Arts, History B and History of Culture and Arts (respectively) are available as a choice, and in the last year of High School (12th grade), they may also choose, as well as Science and Technology students, the subject of History, Cultures and Democracy.

History being a compulsory subject from the 7th till the 9th grades, the Aprendizagens Essenciais seek to provide students with an encompassing view of Portuguese, European and World histories, highlighting that they should “acknowledge the importance of the values in citizenship towards the creation of a civil consciousness as well as a responsible intervention in democratic society; promote respect for differences, acknowledging and valuing diversity: ethnic, ideological, cultural, sexual; value human dignity and human rights, promoting diversity, interactions between cultures, justice, equality and equity in abiding to laws”¹¹. 

These skills are to be developed throughout the 3rd cycle, in order for the student to gain a “critical historical awareness that has a participation in society” and understands the world they live in.

The right wing movements’ presence in the Curriculum

This research project’s subject leads us to the school years where this is taught, either explicitly or inherent to the chronologically appropriate contents. The age groups within our scope are 14/15 years old and 17/18, corresponding to the 9th and 12th (last year of compulsory education) grades, given that the content of the curriculum for the 6th grade (students within the age range of 11/12) only encompasses Portuguese history.

However, we should mention that in the 6th grade, the curriculum for History and Geography of Portugal, in effect between 1991 and 2021, stated that one of its goals was to “contribute to the development of values and attitudes that lead to a democratic intervention and integration in our society”¹². Regarding the subject of the Estado Novo, it states the importance of promoting critical thinking and defending democratic values. The Metas Curriculares and the Aprendizagens Essenciais carried these ideas on, restating the importance of democracy as well as the respect for difference and diversity. 

However, as aforementioned, from the 3rd cycle onward, we may find content that goes beyond national history and included in their curriculum, specifically in the 9th grade, content pertaining to Right Wing movements. Our first focus was on the content in the Aprendizagens Essenciais¹³.

The Aprendizagens Essenciais address crucial topics within the History of the 20th Century, focusing on the social, political and economical phenomenons that lead to the emergence and affirmation of totalitarian regimes and to World War II. The Aprendizagens Essenciais take on a pedagogical approach to the teaching of History that seeks to encourage the development of analytical, research and communication skills on behalf of the student. There are basic concepts within its content that the student is expected to understand: Superproduction, Deflation, Economical Depression, Fascism, Corporatism, Nazism, Totalitarianism, Antissemitism, Estado Novo, Planned Economy, Collectivization, Personality Cult, Popular Front, Reformism, Genocide and Resistance.

In High School, in History A (12th Grade), the Aprendizagens Essenciais underline the social and political tensions of the 20th Century, especially when it comes to European totalitarian regimes and the Estado Novo in Portugal. As for the scope encompassed, the historical and ideological frameworks stand out, from the propagation of new ideologies to the democratic States’ response to the 1929 economic crisis. As it pertains to totalitarian regimes, the curriculum suggests a detailed characterization of the fascist, nazi and stalinist regimes, as well as the issue of persecutions and racial control, mainly by the nazi regime. Within the Portuguese context, the Estado Novo should be looked into in light of fascist ideals, taking under consideration their economic and cultural policies as well as the repressive mechanisms that were used. There is a clear incentive to the development of critical and analytical thinking skills in the students. The main concepts are: Totalitarianism, Fascism, Nazism, Corporatism, Antissemitism, Genocide and Propaganda. 

The Aprendizagens Essenciais¹⁴ for History B for the 11th grade focuses on the political and social tensions of the 1930’s, underlining the Big Depression and the rise of totalitarian regimes. It also encompasses the liberal democracies resistance by underlining state intervention and citizen mobilisation. Regarding Portugal, the focus is on the Estado Novo, its fascist inspiration and the authoritarian policies implemented. Pedagogically, the program emphasises student centred approaches, by promoting critical and creative thinking as well as respect for diversity. The goal is to develop a deep understanding of the events of the 20th Century, so students are capable of carrying out a critical analysis. In addition, there’s a variety of activities suggested such as watching movies and visiting museums in order to provide a multidimensional approach to these subjects and it’s numerous concepts (Totalitarianism, Fascism, Nazism, Corporatism, Antissemitism, Genocide, Propaganda). 

The Aprendizagens Essenciais¹⁵ for History of Culture and the Arts for the 11th grade, provide a broad outlook on art within the context of the fast paced advances of the 20th Century and, however non exclusively, mentions art within totalitarian contexts, bringing forth a discussion regarding the interaction between art and politics. Beyond its theoretical component, there’s a clear incentive to the development of a student’s skills. They are expected to be able to question, communicate and express themselves through diverse means and formats. The presence of totalitarian or right wing governments’ themes is clearly identifiable. For instance, there’s a clear reference to Pablo Picasso’s “Guernica”, the symbolic anti-war painting that brings awareness to the atrocious bombing of the Basc city by fascist forces during the Spanish Civil War. Also, the concept of “degenerate art” is addressed, a nazi category used to marginalise and criticise modern art. In contrast, there is also the “official art of totalitarian regimes” subject, referring to how artistic expression was under the approval and promotion of authoritarian regimes such as nazi Germany and fascist Italy. The section that discourses about “Ruptures, Authoritarianism and Nationalisms” suggests a reflection on the uprising in the European continent of authoritarian and nationalist movements, specially between the two world wars, as well as their impact in art and culture. The concern, regarding the analysis and understanding of totalitarian and right wing regimes in culture and art of the 20th Century, is quite clear.

In the Aprendizagens Essenciais¹⁶ for History, Cultures and Democracy, for the 12th grade, there’s an emphasis on “History and Present Time ”, as a way of underlining the relevance of analysing the past in order to understand the present. The need for critical thinking and rigorous methodology are emphasised. Analytical and critical abilities, as well as the ability to interact with the past and being able to select proper sources, are some of the skills to be developed. The suggested strategies further the development of these skills, motivating students to question and seek to understand current day issues. Students are, thus, motivated to become inquisitive, critical as well as to become effective communicators. The concept of citizenship, in some of the suggested activities, is approached since the time of Ancient Greece till today, and an analysis of human trafficking with a focus on Portuguese practices.   

In general, the Aprendizagens Essenciais are an essential tool in order to train well informed global citizens, who are capable of an historical outlook that is both critical and empathetic when interpreting the present. There’s no direct reference to far right movements, however, considering it’s an open program (without the restraint of a final exam), teachers and students have a lot of leeway to approach present issues where there might be a need to deepen their understanding and awareness. Considering that the rise of the far right is very present in today’s news, approaching this subject is possible and desirable. The Aprendizagens Essenciais is formed by four subjects, one of which is “Passados Dolorosos” (Painful Pasts), that relates to far right movements. Often times these movements rewrite and reinterpret historical situations as a way of justifying their narrative, minimizing, denying or glorifying events such as genocide in order to adjust to their view of History or National Identity. Looking into the Aprendizagens Essenciais for the subject of “History, Cultures and Democracy”, focusing specifically on the section on “Passados Dolorosos” (Painful Pasts”), goals for learning and teaching are defined, then strategies are recommended and lastly specific suggestions in terms of work are made. “Passados Dolorosos” is a subject of undeniable importance, as far as relevant subjects are concerned. Ignorance and undervaluing of these moments in History may lead to distortion or even instrumentalization, with consequences we can still feel today. By bringing these subjects to the forefront, a deeper and more empathetic interpretation of History is encouraged as well as the understanding of its contemporary impact. Analysing the pedagogical strategies proposed, suggestions such as promoting critical and analytical thinking, seem to be particularly correct. This approach has the potential to help the students address sensitive subjects with proper maturity, discernment and empathy. As to diversity of contents, the curriculum has a wide variety of subjects, that go from the Portuguese Colonial War to the worldwide genocides, as well as the fight for human rights. This wide perspective enables contextualising history within a global scope. The Aprendizagens Essenciais thus prepare students for a critical and empathetic approach to History, simultaneously fostering analytical skills and respect for diversity. The success of this approach, however, will ultimately rest on the depth and quality of the teaching within the classroom.

Despite the fact that  “Aprendizagens Essenciais” are in themselves a complete structure, some additions could be considered. Regarding pedagogical resources, it might be interesting to integrate simulation software technology, virtual reality and educational games. These would enable the student to experience historical moments in a more immersive way. In terms of an interdisciplinary approach, it could be interesting to establish connections with other subjects, for instance, exploring how the “Passados Dolorosos” might have influenced areas such as literature, art and music. Lastly, offer supporting materials, such as a list of online resources, documentaries and podcasts, as a means to enrich the study of the subject. These suggestions appear to be of the utmost importance considering there’s no manual for this subject.

Despite the clarity of what is prescribed in the curriculum/program, manuals/textbooks take on an important role, and for that reason we chose to look into the most used manuals/textbooks (a criteria supported by the publishers) in order to identify how they link with the Aprendizagens Essenciais and also the “presence and absence” concerning the rise of the far right topic.

Presence of Far Right movements in School Manuals/textbooks

We had three main goals: how the topic is approached, which resources were selected to work with students, presence and absence or alternative perspectives¹⁷ on the topic. We’ve chosen two 9th grade History manuals/textbooks, one 11th grade for History B, one History of Culture and Arts and a 12th grade for History A. Regarding High School there’s less to choose from, so we’ve selected the ones most used for each subject. 

Manual/textbook A¹⁸ showcases a detailed analysis of the first half of the 20th Century through a chronological and thematic approach. Following a logical organisation method, it flows from the Great Depression in the United States of America to the rise of fascism and nazism in Europe, and the use of subheadings facilitates learning in a clearer way. Crucial details are offered, language is clear and accessible, while remaining neutral. The focus is on the analysis of the far-right, specifically fascism and nazism, complementing information with objective examples in order to better illustrate concepts. Regarding the establishment of the Estado Novo in Portugal, the manual/textbook follows a chronological structure, outlining the rise of Salazar as well as the main pillars of the regime. The Estado Novo is compared with other authoritarian regimes, highlighting the particularity of the Portuguese regime. There’s a detailing of the instruments and organisations of repression, and information is conveyed in an objective way. As it pertains to Brittain, France and Spain, it outlines a broad scope of economical and political events in these countries during the decade of the 1930’s. Though the content is quite synthetic and direct, it approaches the political responses to crises, the impact of the decisions made as well as wider geopolitics, especially regarding the Spanish Civil War. Lastly, the part about the 2nd World War provides a chronological view of the conflict, its causes and all the way to its consequences. There is detailing about the Holocaust, and the creation of the UN is presented as the necessary answer to the need for post-war peace. Through clear language and informative approach, this manual/textbook provides a solid view of events, preparing students for future analysis and discussions. 

Selected resources: Written sources, photographs, maps, chronological charts/timelines, posters.

Suggested activities: Analytical and interpretative approach based on primary sources of information.

Identified concepts: Fascism, Nazism, Totalitarianism, Personality Cult, Corporatism, Antisemitism, Estado Novo, Colectivization, Planned Economy, Popular Front, Resistance, Genocide, Holocaust.  

Identified Absences or other possibilities of focus: a deeper perspective in key areas of world history. A more human centred approach, contextualising and deepening are crucial to facilitate full understanding of these events and periods in time. It is fundamental to compare authoritarian regimes and far-right movements of the past with the recent rise of authoritarian and popular regimes in several countries. That can provide not just the recurrence of certain patterns in history, but also may enlighten the underlying causes and possible solutions for such phenomenon in a present context. In order to create a complete analysis it is essential to: explore the human and personal aspects of the time, focusing on the victims and resistances; establish connections to contemporary events and trends in order to make the study of History relevant and useful to the present.

---

Manual/textbook B¹⁹ addresses the evolution of the 20th Century, focusing on the 1929 Crisis, the rise of totalitarian regimes and World War II. Language is clear and direct and follows a linear chronological structure, highlighting connections of cause and effect. Contextualises events, brings forth key concepts such as “fascism” and “nazism”, tracing common points between both ideologies. There is an effort to keep neutrality and there are suggestions of visual elements, even while approaching delicate subjects like the Holocaust. Regarding Portugal, by focusing on specific leaders and regimes, it provides specific details such as how the rise of Salazar’s Estado Novo was a result of the instability of the 1st Republic. The narrative balances chronology with analysis and highlights specific institutions, while remaining factual and neutral. It establishes connections between broader European tendencies and motivates future inquiry. As it pertains to World War II, the manual/textbook provides a full scope from its origins to its consequences, approaching subjects like the Holocaust and the creation of the United Nations. There’s an interactive type of narrative, motivating the reader to deepen their understanding and inquiry, and integrates varied perspectives from the different nations involved in the conflict. More technical terms are explained and the text connects with current day world scenarios, showcasing the ever present relevance of the events that were discussed. 

The selected resources, the suggested activities and identified concepts are identical to all 3rd cycle manuals.

Identified Absences or other possibilities of focus: Authoritarian and totalitarian regimes created deeply traumatic human experiences. Millions were imprisoned, tortured or killed for expressing contrary opinions or by simply belonging to “undesirable” groups. Jews, homossexuals, amongst many others, were persecuted. Daily life was permeated by fear. For all of this, it’s fundamental to approach History through a more humane lens. More than just learning History, it’s important to feel History. Analysing the past in light of the present is vital. The growth of populism, the erosion of trust in democratic institutions, the spread of “fake news” and the attempt to consolidate power by certain leaders are contemporary tendencies echoing from the 1920’s and the 1930’s. Studying how totalitarian regimes came to be and were consolidated could provide the necessary information so today’s democracies can be strengthened and protected. For instance, the importance of a free press, independent judicial systems and a sturdy civil society are subjects consistently reinforced through the study of the past. History also teaches us about human resilience. In times of crisis, people have a remarkable capacity to resist, organise and fight for justice and for their rights. By connecting these lessons of the past with contemporary challenges, we may provide the necessary tools to face and overcome the threats to freedom and democracy in the 21st Century.

---

Manual/textbook C for the 11th grade History B²⁰ addresses the “Big Depression of 1929” and moves on to the direct geopolitical impact of this crisis. The language used is direct and descriptive, enriched with details that make its content both accessible and understandable. A multifaceted view of the crisis is offered by addressing economic, social and political aspects. Regarding “fascism in Italy”, the text structure combines a theoretical analysis of fascism with a narrative of historic events, thus enabling an holistic overview. The language is precise and informative, diving deeply into the intrinsic characteristics of the fascist regime. There’s a detailed scanning of fascist practices and policies, as well as of the social consequences of this ideology. Within the context of “nazism in Germany”, it follows a logical progression from its origin all the way up to its policies and consequences. A solid analysis of the nazi regime is thus offered, enabling a deeper understanding of this time in history. The “Estado Novo in Portugal” is addressed through a timeline that spans from the establishment of the regime, till its core policies and subsequent impact. Language is informative and direct, and details ideology, policies and practices of the regime. Its content offers a broad and balanced scope of the Estado Novo, highlighting both goals and challenges faced by the regime. Contents are well structured, logical and organised, making these subjects easy to understand. 

Selected resources: Written sources, photographs, maps, chronological charts/timelines, posters and tables. 

Suggested activities: Analytical and interpretative approach based on primary sources of information.

Identified concepts: Totalitarianism, Fascism, Propaganda, Autarchy, Corporatism, Nazism, Racism, Anti Semitism, Genocide, Holocaust, Estado Novo, Authoritarianism.

Identified Absences or other possibilities of focus: There is a lack of analysis regarding the evolution of far-right movements in the 21st Century, especially considering the impact of globalisation, migratory crisis and transformations brought about by the age of information. Notwithstanding, it is important to assess different governments’ response to the rise or threat of the far-right, by looking into laws, policies and regulations implemented. As future perspectives go, it could be relevant to discuss possible trajectories for these movements, considering present trends. Dystopian literature is a useful tool in this reflection, offering 9th, 11th and 12th grade students a view of possible consequences for the rise of far-right governments.

---

Manual/textbook D²¹ for the 11th grade History of Culture and Arts addresses far-right subjects (particularly nazism and fascism) as follows: the emergence of the “National-Socialist Party” is contextualised as the response to the humiliation imposed upon Germany by post-war treatises. This referral helps to understand the factors that led to the emergence of nazism in Germany. The text neither glorifies nor minimises the rise of Hitler and nazism, but it does provide an objective description of events. “Fascism”, under Mussolini’s leadership, is mentioned as having been inspired by Germany’s nazi doctrine. There’s a brief mention in the text to the foundation of the Fascist National Party in 1921, but doesn’t go deep into the nature or actions of the fascist regime. “Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich” are addressed in a critical way, focusing on racial supremacy as well as on the consequences of the Holocaust. It is described in a particularly damning way, portraying it as a “true systematic genocide”. Nazi Germany’s involvement in the war is presented objectively, referring to the alliances (Axis Powers) and opposing them to the Allies. Hitler’s suicide is mentioned as a significant moment, marking the end of nazi leadership and the begining of the end for Germany in the war. The manual addresses the direct consequences of World War II, including the rise of the United States of America and the Soviet Union as superpowers, and the subsequent Cold War, as well as the division of Germany and the construction of the Berlin Wall. 

Selected resources: Photographs and a map (“Europe after World War II).

Suggested activities: There are no activities suggested regarding this subject, even though students are referred to the Activities Notebook. 

Identified concepts: Concepts are not specifically addressed

Identified Absences or other possibilities of focus: The text does not go into detail regarding the specific ideological principles of nazism, besides racial supremacy. Similarly, when the emergence of fascism is mentioned, there’s no in-depth discussion about its underlying ideological principles. There is no mention of other far-right movements or parties that could have emerged in the same time period in other European countries. When the post-war treaty is indicated as a catalyst for the emergence of nazism, contextual details that could have contributed to the rise of the far-right are missing. The manual doesn’t look into the long term consequences of nazism and fascism post World War II or even the way these movements later influenced events and ideologies. Considering this is a History of Culture and the Arts there seems to be no connection between History and Art. A suggestion would be to analyse works of art from that period that might have been, on one hand, censured, and on the other, promoted. Why were some works of art dangerous, and others not? What does this stance say about society’s values?

Lastly, Manual/textbook E²² for the 12th grade History A showcases an hierarchical e sequential organisation, dividing content into sections and subsections. Starts with an introductory context about the emergence of totalitarian regimes and then goes deeper into subjects such as totalitarianism, nationalism and leadership cult. The approach is chronological, placing events in its temporal order, frequently using documents to complement or prove the presented line of reasoning. Authors often compare totalitarian regimes with other political systems and ideologies, thus enriching the discussion with objective examples, namely by mentioning leaders such as Mussolini and Hitler. Despite the broadness of scope of the text, the main focus is on European movements, particularly those of Italian fascism and German nazism. There are conclusions integrated at the end of each subsection, enabling an easier integration of contents. The text also offers an appropriate historical contextualisation. 

Selected resources: Written sources, photographs, maps, chronological charts/timelines, posters, tables. 

Suggested activities: Analytical and interpretative approach based on primary sources of information.

Identified concepts: Totalitarianism, Fascism, Propaganda, Corporatism, Nazism, Antisemitism, Genocide, Holocaust, Authoritarianism, Eugenism.   

Identified Absences or other possibilities of focus: The author’s text provides the 1920’s economical, social and political conditions that gave rise to authoritarian solutions. Relevant events such as the March on Rome and Hitler’s putsch are highlighted. There is a deeper look into the nature of totalitarianism, bringing forth its strong connection to nationalism. There’s an emphasis on the influence elites had, the exacerbated leadership cult and the ways in which masses were manipulated. It acknowledges the use of force, violence and the creation of paramilitary organisations in order to guarantee control. The way racist and eugenic ideologies were fomented is addressed, namely the way it led to the persecution of certain groups, specially Jews. Lastly, there is a reflection on the commitment of autarchy and the strong state intervention in the economy of the countries in question. Maybe it would be relevant for the manual to emphasise comparing the past and present. It’s crucial to understand the potential consequences of the emergence of a totalitarian government today as well as acknowledge which similar regimes arose contemporarily. There are many ways of doing so, for example through recent caricatures, that satire far-right leaders of government or news from so many newspapers, television channels or social networks. 

We think that a posture of greater prospective utility of History should be adopted. By referring to remaining issues, to arising new ones in different times, establishing a dialogue with students about subjects that need be contextualised and compared with identical subjects from another time, but with scientifically sustained consequences. It is adamant to this focus that teachers are scientifically updated, the best use and management possible of the curriculum and the end of the stigma of an exam that constrains time available for a proper approach to these subjects. 

Conclusions 

This paper showcases a detailed analysis of normative documents and school manuals/textbooks in Portugal, proposing to reflect on the role of education in training a critical awareness  capable of resisting the calls for political extremism. Outlining some central aspects that arose from this research:

1. The importance of formal education in the prevention of the rise of far-right movements, highlighting the role of school curriculums and pedagogical manuals in promoting a critical understanding of History and democratic values. This idea speaks to Apple’s (2019) work on curriculum as a field of ideological struggle, where education can as perpetuate as challenge existing power structures. 
2. The analysis of normative documents shows that, even though there is a significant presence of topics connected to the far-right and totalitarian regimes, there are clear differences in approach and depth to how these subjects are addressed.
3. School manuals/textbooks, key instruments in mediating the curriculum, try to contextualise and explain the rise of totalitarian regimes in the 20th Century. However, unidimensional narratives (Torres Salomé, 2020) must be challenged through more critical and comparative approaches, as suggested by Barton and Levstik (2004), which emphasise the importance of manuals/textbooks in the promotion of historical critical thinking as well as empathy.
4. In line with Wineburg (2018), who states that the teaching of History should prepare students to critically question historic narratives, we also considered that school manuals/textbooks fail by default concerning the presentation of pedagogical strategies that emphasise critical thinking, primary sources analysis and the connection between past and present.
5. Lastly, interdisciplinarity and integration of education for citizenship are fundamental to address the far-right, proposing an educational model that transcends the subject of History, favouring a multicultural education and for citizenship that promotes equality, social justice and intercultural understanding.

Authors: Luis Alberto Alves, Sara Dias-Trindade and Cláudia Pinto Ribeiro (CITCEM-FLUP)²³

Bibliography

– Amaral, C., Alves, B., Tadeu, T., & Vilaça, O. (2023). História Sob Investigação 9. Porto Editora.

– Amaral, C., Jesus, E., Neves, P. A. & Carvalho, M. M. (2023). Contamos com a História – História B – 11.º ano. Porto Editora.

– Apple, M. W. (1995). Education and power. Routledge.

– Banks, J. A. (2016). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Wiley.

– Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (2004). Teaching history for the common good. Routledge.

– De Lissovoy, N. (2015). Education and emancipation in the neoliberal era: Being, teaching, and power. Palgrave Macmillan.

– Giroux, H. A. (2020). On critical pedagogy. Bloomsbury Academic.

– Hess, D. E., & McAvoy, P. (2015). The political classroom: Evidence and ethics in democratic education. Routledge.

– Maia, C., Maia, A. M., & Caramez, A. M. (2023). Vamos à História 9. Porto Editora.

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação https://www.dge.mec.pt/curso-de-ciencias-socioeconomicas

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/ae_hcd_12.o.pdf

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação. Aprendizagens Essenciais (2018). Consultado em 30 de janeiro de 2024, https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/11_hca.pdf 

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação. Aprendizagens Essenciais. Consultado em 18 de setembro de 2023. https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/ae_hcd_12.o.pdf

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação. https://www.dge.mec.pt/curso-de-linguas-e-humanidades . Consultado em 27-01-2024.

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação. https://www.dge.mec.pt/curso-de-artes-visuais 

– Ministério da Educação-Direção Geral de Educação. Metas Curriculares de História (2014). https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/ficheiros/metas_curriculares_hist_3_ci-clo.pdf 

– Mouffe, C. (2018). For a left populism. Verso Books.

– Nunes, P. S. (2023). História da Cultura e das Artes 11. Raiz Editora.

– Rosas, M. A. M., Couto, C. P., Costa, A. Santos, A. C. (2023). Entre Tempos 12 – História A – 12.º ano. Porto Editora.

– Torres Santomé, J. (2006). Globalización e interdisciplinariedad: El curriculum integrado. Morata.

– Wineburg, S. (2018). Why learn history (when it’s already on your phone). University of Chicago Press.

http://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/3_ciclo/historia_3c_9a_ff.pdf 

https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Secundario/Documentos/Documentos_Disciplinas_novo/Cursos_Cientifico_Humanisticos/historia_b_11.pdf .

Notes

1. AfD – Alternative for Germany. ↩︎
2. Sesselman has been elected as the administrator of Sonneberg, a municipality with 54 thousand inhabitants, part of the state of Thuringia, previously a part of Eastern Europe. ↩︎
3. That broadened the number of years of compulsory education to 12. ↩︎
4. Secretary of State for Education ‘s Office, Despacho no. 5907/2017, 5th of July, Diário da República, 2ª Série – No. 128, p. 13881. ↩︎
5. History and Geography of Portugal Program for the 2nd cycle of Basic Education, History for the 3rd cycle of Basic Education Program and History A for High School Program, homologated by the Despacho no. 124/ME/91, of the 17th of August, Diário da República no. 188/1991, série II. ↩︎
6. Despacho no. 17169/2011, from 23rd of December, Diário da República no. 245/2011, série II. ↩︎
7. Despacho no. 5122/2013, from the 23rd of December, Diário da República, no. 74/2013, série II e Despacho no. 110-A/2014, from the 3rd of January, Diário da República n.º 2/2014, 1.º Suplemento, Série II. ↩︎
8.  Despacho no. 6605-A/2021, from the 6th of July, Diário da República no. 129/2021, série II. ↩︎
9. Despacho no. 6944-A/2018, from 19th of July, Diário da República no. 138/2018, série II, e Despacho no. 8476-A/2018, from 31st of August, Diário da República no. 168/2018, 2.º Suplemento, série II. ↩︎
10. Martins, G. de O. (coord.) (2017). Perfil dos alunos à saída da escolaridade obrigatória, Ministério da Educação, p. 8 ↩︎
11. Ministry of Education – General Directorate of Education. Aprendizagens Essenciais (2022). Consulted on the 8th of  February 2024, https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/3_ciclo/historia_3c_9a_ff.pdf ↩︎
12.  Ministry of Education (1991), History and Geography of Portugal Program, 6th grade. Lisbon: Ministry of Education, p.81. ↩︎
13. See Annex 1 – Analysis Guide. ↩︎
14. Ministry of Education – General Directorate of Education. Aprendizagens Essenciais (2018). Consulted on the 18th of September 2023, https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Secundario/Documentos/Documentos_Disciplinas_novo/Cursos_Cientifico_Humanisticos/historia_b_11.pdf . ↩︎
15.  Ministry of Education – General Directorate of Education. Aprendizagens Essenciais (2018). Consulted on the 30th of January 2024, https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/11_hca.pdf ↩︎
16. Ministry of Education – General Directorate of Education. Aprendizagens Essenciais. Consulted on the 18th of September 2023. https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Curriculo/Aprendizagens_Essenciais/ae_hcd_12.o.pdf ↩︎
17. See Annex 2 – Analysis Guide ↩︎
18. Maia, C., Maia, A. M., & Caramez, A. M. (2023). Vamos à História 9. Porto: Porto Editora. ↩︎
19. Amaral, C., Alves, B., Tadeu, T., & Vilaça, O. (2023). História Sob Investigação 9. Porto: Porto Editora ↩︎
20. Amaral, C., Jesus, E., Neves, P. A. & Carvalho, M. M. (2023). Contamos com a História – História B – 11.º ano. Porto: Porto Editora. ↩︎
21. Nunes, P. S. (2023). História da Cultura e das Artes 11. Lisboa: Raiz Editora ↩︎
22. Rosas, M. A. M., Couto, C. P., Costa, A. Santos, A. C. (2023). Entre Tempos 12 – História A – 12.º ano.  Porto Editora. ↩︎
23. This report has the collaboration of Lara Lopes, Master in Teaching of History by the FLUP, as well as Andreia Nunes, recipient of a scholarship from this Project (SOLREM). ↩︎